Advances in cellular and structural engineering of brain organoids for disease modeling: A Comprehensive Review

Background: Organoid technology has rapidly evolved as a transformative tool for modeling human physiology and disease. Organoids are three-dimensional, stem cell-derived constructs that self-organize to recapitulate key structural and functional features of native organs. Among known organoids, brain organoids have provided unprecedented insights into human neurodevelopment and pathophysiology, overcoming the limitations of traditional two-dimensional cultures and animal models. These models closely mimic the architecture, cellular diversity, and regional specification of the human brain, offering a physiologically relevant platform for mechanistic studies. Therefore, brain organoids have become indispensable for investigating complex neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and schizophrenia. Aim of the review: This review aims to discuss recent advancements in brain organoid technology, emphasizing innovations in each component of the system: cells, supporting cells, three-dimensional architecture, and microenvironment, particularly in the context of major neurological diseases. Key scientific concepts of the review: Notably, brain organoids provide valuable platforms for understanding molecular mechanisms, identifying therapeutic targets, and evaluating drug responses by preserving patient-specific genetic backgrounds and faithfully recapitulating disease-associated phenotypes. Meanwhile, advances in transcriptomic profiling, vascularization strategies, region-specific induction, and CRISPR/Cas9-based genetic engineering have further enhanced the utility and reproducibility of these techniques. This review summarizes key technological advancements and major findings in brain organoid research, including microenvironmental modulation, high-throughput culture platforms, and integrative analysis tools. We also highlight the associated applications in disease modeling, drug screening, and personalized medicine, while addressing current limitations and ethical considerations. As brain organoid systems continue to mature, through innovations such as assembloids, vascular integration, and patient-derived modeling, these systems offer great promise for bridging the translational gap in neuroscience and neurotherapeutics between bench and bedside.