Augmented 3D Printing for Multiscale Microphysiological Systems

Microphysiological systems (MPS) can recapitulate physiological features of human organs; however, existing engineering techniques are limited to fabricating sophisticated and functional MPS. Although 3D printing offers the potential to enhance the complexity of MPS and simplify the fabrication process, existing 3D-printed MPS suffer from challenges in fabricating multiscale structures spanning nanometers to centimeters. Recent studies suggested that these issues can be addressed by integrating multiscale ancillary techniques into 3D printing. In this review, an overview of augmented 3D-printing techniques is provided, combined with multiscale ancillary techniques for multiscale MPS fabrication, which are termed augmented 3D-printing techniques. It starts by providing an overview of 3D-printing methods and relevant multiscale ancillary techniques. Then, recent developments are highlighted in augmented 3D-printed MPS that show features that surpass those of conventional systems. This augmented approach opens the door to MPS with more physiologically relevant structures and functions, thereby marking a significant step forward in next-generation tissue engineering.