Recent advances in illicit drug detection sensor technology in water

Illicit drugs, including opioids, amphetamines, cocaine, and cannabis, have significant physical, social, and economic consequences worldwide. Population surveys, drug seizure data, and wastewater-based epidemiology have been used to monitor their use. In particular, it is important to monitor these drugs in wastewater not only to evaluate environmental impacts but also to track illegal drug use. However, traditional analytical methods such as liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry are time-consuming, expensive, and unsuitable for field use. There is a growing need for the development of sensor technology to detect illicit drugs in water for real-time and continuous monitoring, portability and ease of use, lower cost, and high sensitivity and selectivity. Electrochemical and optical sensors are promising tools due to their ease of use, low cost, and mobility. This review summarizes recent advances in these technologies for illicit drug detection which can lead to strategy development to protect public health.